| Abstract |
NOAA technical memorandum NMFS-PIFSC ; 183,Biological invasions are an increasingly major global threat to the functioning of ecosystems today (Levine, 2008; Roy et al., 2024). While most non-native species have neutral or benign impacts, smaller subsets can cause significant ecological and economic harm (Levine, 2008). They are responsible for 60% of documented extinctions in all ecosystems and incurring global economic costs exceeding US$ 423 billion in 2019 (Roy et al., 2024). These harmful species are termed “invasive” and often characterized as fast-growing generalist organisms capable of rapid establishment and spread (Levine, 2008; Walther et al., 2009).
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